Most penalties result in replaying the down. Sometimes it is more beneficial to take the result of the play and not replay the down. Example, on 3rd and 10 there is a holding penalty on the offense during a 2 yard run. Accepting the penalty makes it 3rd and 20, declining makes it 4th and 8. On 4th down the offense should punt.
There is no penalty for that
There is no evidence that such a penalty exists in any football league currently.
This penalty is called "Clipping".
No
a penalty
It depends on who made the penalty.
The penalty is a 5-Yard " Delay of Game " penalty
Big Elk's Turndown - 1910 was released on: USA: 7 October 1910
Its is process term which means the reduced capacity w.r.t. the rated capacity. For example if plant rated capacity is x and turndown capacity is 85% that means 0.85x. And similarly the turndown ratio would be x/0.85x.
Yes, roughing the passer is a penalty. It calls for a 15 yard penalty on the offending team.
It is called the penalty arc. It is to ensure that defenders are 10 yards from the penalty spot when a penalty kick is taken.
It is a direct free kick, or a penalty kick if a defender kicks an attacker in the defender's penalty area.