If you just hit a ball out of bounce from the tee box or if you don't know if you did you can call for a provisional ball. You would hit your second shot from the tee box "your provisional shot" and see if you can find the first ball. If you can't and your provisional ball is in play then you have play provisional ball and you accrue a 1 shot penalty stroke also. If you find your first shot off of the tee then you pick up your provisional ball and play your first tee shot. No penalty if you find your first tee shot and you can play it. So, the second shot from the tee box would be considered a provisional shot.
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If when lining up your putt, you have a marker down and you strike the ball, there is no penalty. However in any other circumstance where you or you caddy strike the Golf ball the following applies.
If you hit your ball accidentally you receive a one shot penalty, and the ball must replace the ball to it's original position. If you do not replace it, and tee off on the next hole without correcting your mistake, you will be disqualified.
The type of shot which is played on the green is known as a putt. The most important part of the game. Rarely if there is a hard green some players may favour chipping the ball.
A second chance at your first shot in golf is referred to as a "mulligan". Of course, it is not within the Rules of Golf, but weekend players do it all the time.