This depends on the specific rules of the game you play.
Under BCA and APA Rules the other player gets ball-in-hand.
Under most rules if you fail to hit your object ball it is a foul, not a scratch. The foul will mean ball-in-hand to your opponent.
Technically, is a scratch, but most people will just let you put it back.
A bad shot is called when a bad shot is made. A bad shot is when the cue ball misses the object ball. It's called a scratch.
Under most pool game rules, if the cue ball fails to hit the object ball, or it hits and a ball then does not go in a pocket or hit a rail it is a foul. The other player will get ball in hand.
The ball that you intend to play.
Under most rules, no.
The 8 ball
eight ball
In pocket billiards, a scratch is a slang term to refer to a foul where the cue ball either goes into a pocket or leaves the table. After a scratch, the next player gets "ball-in-hand" with the cue ball. This allows them to place the ball anywhere on the table, or, depending upon house rules or if the scratch occurred on the break, placing it behind the head string. In 8 Ball, if the scratch occurs and the 8 ball is pocketed as well, it is a loss of game - under some House Rules, a scratch when shooting the 8 ball is automatic loss of game.
The resultant momentum of the two objects will roughly equal that of the dynamic object in magnitude and direction, minus some energy lost due to friction during the collision. Think of what happens when a cue ball hits a stationary ball in pool.
If you're referring to a foul, it's ball in hand for the incoming player, provided it is a cue ball foul (i.e. scratch, ball off table, hitting opponents ball before your own, etc.). I believe some fouls result in loss of turn, but not ball in hand (i.e. - an object ball leaves the table).
Whoever sinks the 8 ball wins as long as it is in the correctly called pocked and the shooter does not scratch. No points per ball in 8 ball.